The Indus Civilization: A Look into One of the World’s First Urban Societies
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), one of the world's earliest urban cultures, flourished from around 2600 to 1900 B.C. This Bronze Age civilization was a contemporary of the ancient Egypt and Sumerians of Mesopotamia.
Archaeologists have discovered around 2000 sites spread across a vast area of 1.5 million square kilometers in present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. These sites range in size from large urban centers to smaller settlements. The IVC had a population estimated to be between 1 and 5 million people. Only 10% of sites have been excavated so far.
Some of the major IVC sites include Sindh (Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro, Amri), Punjab - Pakistan (Harappa, Ganweriwala), Gujarat (Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada), Uttar Pradesh (Sinauli), Rajasthan (Kalibangan), Punjab - India (Rupar), Haryana (Bhirrana, Banawali, Rakhigarhi), Balochistan (Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Sutkagan Dor), Maharashtra (Daimabad), and Shortugai in Afghanistan.
Two sculptured pieces worthy of praise are a steatite figure of a bearded man known as the Priest-King, and a bronze sculpture of a woman dancer known as the Dancing Girl, discovered at Mohenjo-daro.
The Harappa excavation was led by archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, while Mohenjo-daro was excavated by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922. Noting similarities between the two sites, Marshall identified them as part of a single civilization (The term civilization describes a society of which town life is a central feature.), which he named the 'Indus Valley Civilization'. On September 20, 1924, he announced this discovery to the world in the pages of the Illustrated London News.
As further exploration took place, it became evident that this civilization extended well beyond the confines of the Indus River and its tributaries, encompassing a vast region with a variety of geographical features.
The civilization is now more commonly referred to as the Harappan civilization, named after Harappa, the first site to be discovered. It consists of three main phases: the early phase (3200 to 2600 B.C.), the mature period (2600 to 1900 B.C.), and the late phase (1900 to 1500 B.C.).
Notably, the absence of grand palaces, royal graves, or monumental temples at major sites raises questions about the social structure of the Harappans. This may indicate a lack of powerful ruling elites or priestly classes that were common in other ancient civilizations.
Inscriptions of Gudea, the ruler of Lagash (2143-2124 B.C.) describe the arrival of Meluhhans to supply wood, gold dust, carnelian and other luxury materials for the construction of the main temple in Gudea's capital.
Mesopotamian texts also mention goods such as ivory, inlay-work, hard woods, animals, birds and slaves being imported from Meluhha. Unfortunately, details on what the Indus received in return remain unknown, possibly because those items were perishable. There is also no proof that people from Mesopotamia reached the Indus. After 1900 B.C., the trade with Mesopotamia seems to have stopped.
Alongside the characters, many of the objects also feature motifs of animals, trees such as pipal (fig), humans, mythical creatures or composite animals. Some depict narrative scenes, such as a woman fighting animals and a horned hunter attacking a tiger. The connection between the motifs and the inscriptions remains unclear.
Seals are the most common item, believed to have been used in trade to mark packages of goods. Featuring a hole on the reverse side for threading, they were easy to carry and used to make impressions on clay. They were primarily made from steatite (talc or soapstone), although some were also created from frit, silver, marble, calcite, limestone or terracotta. While most seals are square in shape, a few are round or rarely cylindrical (Mesopotamian style).
Most scholars agree that the script is likely read from right to left. Some of the expert Indus scholars are Father Heras (late), Iravatham Mahadevan (late) and Asko Parpola.
This unicorn can be compared to a humpless bull. Sometimes the horn is shown as smooth, while other times it is ridged. Behind the horn at the back of the head is a single, upright, and pointed ear.
The neck is decorated with some kind of collar. A shoulder covering is shown with single or double lines, thought to represent a harness or blanket. A slender tail emerges at the top of the rump and draping down the back of the leg, ending in a long bushy tuft resembling that of cattle.
It is hoped that future excavations in India, Pakistan, and Central Asia will reveal new discoveries that may shed light on the mysterious Indus script.
Archaeologists have discovered around 2000 sites spread across a vast area of 1.5 million square kilometers in present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. These sites range in size from large urban centers to smaller settlements. The IVC had a population estimated to be between 1 and 5 million people. Only 10% of sites have been excavated so far.
Some of the major IVC sites include Sindh (Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro, Amri), Punjab - Pakistan (Harappa, Ganweriwala), Gujarat (Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada), Uttar Pradesh (Sinauli), Rajasthan (Kalibangan), Punjab - India (Rupar), Haryana (Bhirrana, Banawali, Rakhigarhi), Balochistan (Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Sutkagan Dor), Maharashtra (Daimabad), and Shortugai in Afghanistan.
Two sculptured pieces worthy of praise are a steatite figure of a bearded man known as the Priest-King, and a bronze sculpture of a woman dancer known as the Dancing Girl, discovered at Mohenjo-daro.
Discovery
Sir John Marshall, who served as the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) from 1902 to 1928, oversaw the excavations that led to the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. |
| Sir John Hubert Marshall by Walter Stoneman - NPG |
The Harappa excavation was led by archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, while Mohenjo-daro was excavated by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922. Noting similarities between the two sites, Marshall identified them as part of a single civilization (The term civilization describes a society of which town life is a central feature.), which he named the 'Indus Valley Civilization'. On September 20, 1924, he announced this discovery to the world in the pages of the Illustrated London News.
As further exploration took place, it became evident that this civilization extended well beyond the confines of the Indus River and its tributaries, encompassing a vast region with a variety of geographical features.
The civilization is now more commonly referred to as the Harappan civilization, named after Harappa, the first site to be discovered. It consists of three main phases: the early phase (3200 to 2600 B.C.), the mature period (2600 to 1900 B.C.), and the late phase (1900 to 1500 B.C.).
Notably, the absence of grand palaces, royal graves, or monumental temples at major sites raises questions about the social structure of the Harappans. This may indicate a lack of powerful ruling elites or priestly classes that were common in other ancient civilizations.
Characteristics
- Well-planned cities with burnt brick construction and grid-pattern streets
- Advanced drainage system
- The population consists mainly of farmers, traders, and craftsmen. Crafts are produced in workshops and stored in warehouses.
- Practice of animal husbandry. Among the animal bones cattle, water buffalo, wild ass, sheep, goat, pig, dog, and elephant are found.
- Production of wheel-made pottery, sometimes featuring beautiful painted motifs.
- Use of a unique script
- Baked bricks, as well as sun-dried mud-bricks of standard size
- Standard weights and measures
- Barter system for trade
- Presence of wells, canals, and reservoirs indicates advanced water management techniques. It is possible that a lever-lift system based on stone counterweights was used for lifting water from wells.
- Burying the dead along with personal belongings like jewelry or pottery
- Maritime trade connections with Mesopotamia
- Pioneers in cotton cultivation and textile manufacturing. However, the fibre obtained must have been small in quantity.
- They harvested various crops like wheat, barley, lentils, pulses such as chickpeas, millets, mustard, sesame, dates, jujube, grape and melon. Archaeological sites have shown evidence of ploughed fields. Their diet consisted of meat, fish, shellfish, and dairy products.
- They were skilled in metallurgy and manufactured bronze by mixing tin with copper. Excavations have uncovered a range of tools and weapons including razors, knives, chisels, hooks, saws, axes, awls, nails, needles, arrowheads, spearheads, and tubular drills. Rich people used copper and bronze utensils. Bronze mirrors were also a luxury item.
- Transportation methods included wooden carts as well as river boats.
- Ornaments were crafted from jade, agate, lapis lazuli, shell, terracotta, carnelian, gold and silver. Etched carnelian beads were unique to the Indus region.
- Toys, dice, and various gaming pieces
- There is also evidence of trepanning, hinting at their medical knowledge
- Structures identified as Granaries, Fire altars, Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro), Buddhist Stupa (Mohenjo-daro) and Shipyard (Lothal).
The Structure of Houses
Most homes were constructed using sun-baked mud bricks, featuring flat roofs supported by wooden beams. Some houses had two stories with brick stairs. Many families lived in modest two-room houses. Larger houses had several rooms surrounding a central courtyard, while the very rich had mansions with 30 or more rooms made of fired bricks. Most houses had small bathrooms and toilets that emptied through clay pipes leading to larger covered street sewers. Many houses had their own wells.Trade
Trade in the Indus civilization can be classified into three levels: local village-town trade, long-distance trade within the civilization, and commerce with distant regions.Meluhha
The Indus engaged in long distances trade relations with Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), as evidenced by Sumerian cuneiform texts and Indus artifacts found at various Mesopotamian sites. Mesopotamians referred to the Indus region as Meluhha. There may have been Harappan settlements in Mesopotamia. The Meluhhans, "men of the black country," are first mentioned in an inscription of Sargon (2334-2279 B.C.), the ruler of Akkad, referring to Meluhhan ships docked at his capital. An Akkadian cylinder seal mentions a Meluhha interpreter.Inscriptions of Gudea, the ruler of Lagash (2143-2124 B.C.) describe the arrival of Meluhhans to supply wood, gold dust, carnelian and other luxury materials for the construction of the main temple in Gudea's capital.
Mesopotamian texts also mention goods such as ivory, inlay-work, hard woods, animals, birds and slaves being imported from Meluhha. Unfortunately, details on what the Indus received in return remain unknown, possibly because those items were perishable. There is also no proof that people from Mesopotamia reached the Indus. After 1900 B.C., the trade with Mesopotamia seems to have stopped.
Indus Script
Nearly 4000 inscribed objects have been found from various IVC locations. Over 500 Indus characters (letters, signs, and numbers) appears on seals, tablets, tools, and pottery. Some of the inscribed materials are steatite, marble, calcite, limestone, faience, terracotta, shell, bone, silver, copper and ivory.Alongside the characters, many of the objects also feature motifs of animals, trees such as pipal (fig), humans, mythical creatures or composite animals. Some depict narrative scenes, such as a woman fighting animals and a horned hunter attacking a tiger. The connection between the motifs and the inscriptions remains unclear.
Seals are the most common item, believed to have been used in trade to mark packages of goods. Featuring a hole on the reverse side for threading, they were easy to carry and used to make impressions on clay. They were primarily made from steatite (talc or soapstone), although some were also created from frit, silver, marble, calcite, limestone or terracotta. While most seals are square in shape, a few are round or rarely cylindrical (Mesopotamian style).
Most scholars agree that the script is likely read from right to left. Some of the expert Indus scholars are Father Heras (late), Iravatham Mahadevan (late) and Asko Parpola.
The Unicorn
The side profile of a single-horned male creature, popularly known as 'unicorn', standing before what appears to be an 'altar', 'offering stand', 'cult object', or 'incense burner', is the most common image depicted on Indus seals. Interestingly, the mysterious object is also depicted with other animals such as elephants, rhinoceros, tiger and humped bulls (zebu).This unicorn can be compared to a humpless bull. Sometimes the horn is shown as smooth, while other times it is ridged. Behind the horn at the back of the head is a single, upright, and pointed ear.
The neck is decorated with some kind of collar. A shoulder covering is shown with single or double lines, thought to represent a harness or blanket. A slender tail emerges at the top of the rump and draping down the back of the leg, ending in a long bushy tuft resembling that of cattle.
Why Can't We Decipher the Script?
- No information is available about the Indus language. Many scholars believe that it is ancient Dravidian.
- No names of Indus rulers or figures are known from myths or historical records. There are no written documents from that era.
- There is no known equivalent to the Rosetta Stone that might provide a bilingual reference for deciphering the script.
- The texts are too short, average length is five characters and the longest has only 26. It seems probable that the people used perishable materials for their long records.
The Mystery of the Decline
Despite the remarkable achievements of the Harappan civilization, it faced a gradual decline starting around 1900 B.C. Several theories have been proposed regarding the reasons for this decline, such as climate change, river flooding, spread of diseases, and decline of trade with Mesopotamia.Difference Between Indus and Arya Culture
Comparing the Indus Valley Civilization with the subsequent Aryan culture reveals substantial differences in societal organization and lifestyle.- The oldest record of the Vedic period, the Rig Veda, dates back to around 1500 B.C.
- Aryans were pastoral and nomads.
- Aryans spoke an Indo-European language
- Aryans had domesticated horses, whereas there is no evidence of horses in the IVC.
- Aryans practiced cremation for their dead.
It is hoped that future excavations in India, Pakistan, and Central Asia will reveal new discoveries that may shed light on the mysterious Indus script.
Note
Both Lothal and Mohenjo-daro are said to have the same meaning in their respective local languages - the mound of the dead.Reference
- www.harappa.com
- The Indus Civilization by Irfan Habib
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